Source: Matias Delacroix/AP.
The announcement by the president of the Venezuelan National Assembly that the country would hold a consultative referendum, by direct and secret ballot, to decide the possible annexation of the Essequibo region in Guyana has generated tensions among the South American neighbors. With more than 160,000 km² of territory, offshore oil areas offering a high potential for exploitation, and an estimated population of approximately 125,000 inhabitants, Essequibo (also known as Guayana Esequiba or Esequibo) is an area that has long been the subject of disputed boundaries—previously between Venezuela and the colony of British Guyana, and continued by Guyana after independence. In other words, although the current focus of the dispute reflects the economic interests of both countries due to recently discovered oil reserves, there are long-standing issues regarding sovereignty and international arbitration behind it, which have not necessarily been of concern to governments in the region for many years.
The processes of establishing and demarcating national borders in South America took place in the nineteenth century, with successive governments devoting themselves to other foreign policy issues more aligned with their national interests. At that time, British Guyana was just starting to diversify an economy based predominantly on demerara sugar, and Venezuela was immersed in a series of political crises. This made resolving the dispute quickly unfeasible, as both countries were absorbed in domestic issues.
The dispute over the area began in 1841 when the Venezuelan government disputed the Schomburgk Line, a border that gave the United Kingdom control over the mouth of the Orinoco River, demarcated by a British expedition sent to clarify the borders of the territory of Guyana purchased from the Netherlands… Hoping to avoid further conflict, the United Kingdom offered Venezuela the entire mouth of the Orinoco River and the adjacent lands, while maintaining British rights to the lands to the east, stretching as far as the Essequibo River. Dissatisfied with the arrangement, the Venezuelan government contested the demarcated lines, appealing for U.S. intervention under the Monroe Doctrine.
In the 1890s, the U.S. encouraged both parties to submit their territorial claims to binding arbitration. Exchanges between the UK and Venezuela eventually led to the signing of an arbitration treaty called the Treaty of Washington (1897). However, in the twentieth century, the issue returned when Venezuela made a statement before the Fourth Committee of the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1962, not recognizing the previously established arrangements. In the following years, other agreements and understandings were reached between the two countries, but they did not work out because both parties alleged multiple violations of their territorial sovereignty in the Essequibo region. From then on, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has arbitrated the case.
Between the 1980s and 1990s, Venezuelan foreign policy, marked by a strong integrationist project and incentives for oil exploration, allowed relations with Guyana to soften. However, in the first quarter of the 2000s, the dispute resurfaced after the discovery of oil and gas in the Stabroek Block, which lies within the disputed region.
Through official announcements, the Guyana Ministry of Foreign Affairs began to publish information about the interception of naval vessels in the maritime area claimed by the two countries, for example, the Yekuana, of the Venezuelan National Navy and the Association of Singapore Marine Industries (Asmi), among others. The Guyanese government claimed at the time that the vessels were carrying out hydrocarbon prospecting studies in the offshore oil block named Roraima, located in the country’s exclusive economic zone and not in international waters. Such events continue to this day, like when the Venezuelan navy intercepted Ramform Tethys, a ship owned by the Norwegian company Petroleum Geo-Services (PGS) which was carrying out seismic research work in Guyanese waters.
Once the Venezuelan government announced the consultative referendum, a massive domestic campaign began to engage the 20 million eligible voters in electronic ballot boxes, at 28,000 tables distributed in 15,000 voting centers in Venezuela. Less than a month after the primary elections, the results of which were suspended by the Venezuelan Supreme Court, the National Electoral Council (CNE) began organizing a new electoral process. Voters will answer five questions, including the creation of the state of Guayana Esequiba, with its incorporation into the national territorial map.
All this movement has caused apprehension on the part of neighbors, such as the Brazilian government. Brazil has begun bilateral talks, especially with the Venezuelan government, with a view toward possible mediation, out of concern that the conflict could escalate and affect Brazil’s shared land border with both countries. Crucially, Brazil also has an area still under study for oil prospecting adjacent to the Guyana plateau, which further compounds to the fluidity of current arbitration efforts. Regional organizations such as the Caribbean Community (Caricom), the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Organization of American States (OAS) have also issued statements rejecting the referendum, in addition to the United Nations (UN) itself. The statements came after the intensification of military actions on the borders between the countries.
Although the dispute has been going on for many years, it has not attracted much regional and international attention until now, above all because of its position on the side of the South American geopolitical stage. The territorial dispute between Venezuela and Guyana over the Essequibo region is a conflict that stretches back centuries, with its roots in the colonial era but with implications that extend to the present day. The issue has taken on new contours with the discovery of oil reserves, intensifying regional tensions on resource clashes. Although several attempts at arbitration and agreements have been made, the dispute remains unresolved, with both countries claiming sovereignty over the region. The current situation calls for a careful diplomatic approach that respects the sovereign rights of both nations, with the hope that Guyana, Venezuela, and the region can reach a peaceful resolution in the future.
Paula Gomes Moreira is a research collaborator at the Institute for Applied Economic Research (Ipea) in Brazil. She holds a PhD in International Relations from the University of Brasilia (UnB) and has served as an international election observer in Haiti and Paraguay.
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